Nov. 22-26, 1943, saw the Allied Sextant conference take place in Cairo, Egypt. U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek attended the meeting.
Ever since American entry into the Second World War in December 1941, the idea of a meeting between the leaders of the three most powerful Allied leaders — Roosevelt, Churchill and Josef Stalin of the USSR — had been considered. Such a meeting would not only help the Allied nations coordinate grand strategy at the highest levels but also allow the leaders a chance to discuss a post-war settlement.
By mid-1943, the arrangements had been made for the first meeting of the “Big Three” as they were known. After much negotiation, and the machinations of an intractable Stalin who did not want to travel to any meeting by air, the conference was set to begin on Nov. 28 in Tehran, Iran — a nation which conveniently bordered the Soviet Union.
Churchill, however, wished to discuss matters with Roosevelt before the meeting with Stalin and suggested that they meet in Cairo for a few days before continuing on to Iran. Churchill was concerned about the planned cross-channel attack on France tentatively scheduled for the next spring, code-named “Operation Overlord.” Stalin had been demanding a second front in Europe ever since the Nazis invaded the USSR in June 1941. Roosevelt was eager for the operation, but Churchill had hoped to persuade Roosevelt to exploit the British and American advantages in the Mediterranean Sea instead. By August, the Allies had captured Sicily and much of southern Italy. Churchill wanted more amphibious operations in the Aegean Sea, and he preferred an attack upon what he called “the soft underbelly of Europe” to the landings in France.
Roosevelt agreed that a preliminary meeting was in order but feared how it would look to the Soviets. He did not want to appear to be preparing a united front against Stalin even as he was trying to win the Soviet leader's confidence. This, however, is exactly what Churchill wished to do. Roosevelt said he would attend the meeting if Soviet and Chinese representatives were also allowed to attend, and Churchill agreed, though hoped he could have some alone time with the president and the American staff to press his views.
In April 1941, however, the Soviets had signed a non-aggression pact with the Japanese, and war between the two nations had never broken out since, either formally or informally. Stalin feared that a Soviet presence at a conference in which the Chinese coordinated strategy with the United States against the Japanese may threaten the fragile peace between the USSR and Japan and declined to attend. Chiang Kai-shek, however, was delighted with the prospect of attending a high level meeting with his two strongest allies.
On Nov. 11, 1943, Roosevelt left Washington aboard the presidential yacht, Potomac, which soon rendezvoused with the USS Iowa to carry the presidential party to Africa. The next day, Churchill left Plymouth on board the HMS Renown, which conveyed him to Egypt. In addition to the two leaders, armies of political advisers and high-ranking military officers soon arrived at Cairo as well. In Churchill's “Memoirs of the Second World War,” the prime minister noted the bustle of the first day of the conference, Nov. 22:
“The Staffs congregated rapidly. … The whole place bristled with troops and anti-aircraft guns, and the strictest cordons guarded all approaches. Everyone set to work at once at their various levels upon the immense mass of business which had to be decided or adjusted.”
Almost immediately, Roosevelt privileged Chiang over Churchill and conducted several meetings with the Chinese leader and staff over the war against Japan. Churchill believed that this was a sideshow and took time away from the important business of discussing the Allies' plans for the European campaign. Churchill continued:
“What we had apprehended from Chiang Kai-shek's presence now in fact occurred. The talks of the British and American Staffs were sadly distracted by the Chinese story, which was lengthy, complicated, and minor.”
When the American and British staffs did sit down to discuss strategy, they often had disagreements, some of which became quite heated. In the book “The Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Italy, 1943-1944”, historian Rick Atkinson includes observations from U.S. Lt. Gen. Joseph W. Stillwell. Stillwell's account noted that at times British Field Marshal Alan Brooke and U.S. Admiral Ernest J. King nearly came to blows.
“Brooke got nasty and King got good and sore,” wrote Stillwell. “King almost climbed over the table at Brooke. … He was mad. I wished he had socked him.” When Churchill suggested that the Americans and British should hold off on the attack on France and instead invade the Aegean island of Rhodes, U.S. Army Chief of Staff George Marshall returned, “Not one American solider is going to die on that … beach.”
Roosevelt then pointed out that America was now contributing far more to the Allied cause than Britain, implicitly stating that America would take the lead in strategic policy. Churchill was all too aware that not only was this the case, but in fact British material and manpower contribution to the war was already on the decline.
Roosevelt had expected Churchill's lukewarm support for Overlord, and his attempt to shift the emphasis of the Allied effort to the Mediterranean. U.S. Secretary of War Henry Stimson, a major supporter of the invasion of France, had told Roosevelt to expect British foot dragging on the issue. Marshall said simply that it was time for the British to “fish or cut bait.” Roosevelt remained committed to the cross-channel attack, and Churchill had no choice but to accept the American's pronouncement.
In the book “FDR,” biographer Jean Edward Smith wrote: “The high point of the four days in Cairo was Thanksgiving dinner at the residence of the American minister on November 25. 'Let's make it a family affair,' said FDR as he carved two enormous turkeys for the nineteen British and American guests. … After dinner (presidential adviser Harry) Hopkins unearthed an ancient gramophone and began to play dance music. Churchill's actress daughter Sarah was the only woman present and was in great demand.”
Churchill approached Edwin "Pa" Watson, FDR's military adviser, and asked the large man to dance, much to the amused delight of the president and assembled company. “For a couple of hours we cast care aside,” wrote Churchill. “I had never seen the President more gay.”
Two days later, Roosevelt and Churchill took separate flights to Tehran to begin their conference with Marshal Stalin. Cairo had proved an important moment in the war between the Allied leaders. Roosevelt had firmly set strategy and let Churchill know that America would not support any side projects in the Mediterranean. It was a sting for the prime minister, who had done so much to defeat Hitler, to be told bluntly that of the three major Allied nations fighting Germany, he represented the one that now contributed the least to victory.
At Tehran, Roosevelt and Churchill set the date for Overlord. The cross-channel attack would take place in May 1944, much to Stalin's delight. In fact, weather delayed the operation until June 6, 1944, and the operation proved a major turning point in the war against Hitler.
Cody K. Carlson holds a master's in history from the University of Utah and teaches at Salt Lake Community College. An avid player of board games, he blogs at thediscriminatinggamer.com. Email: ckcarlson76@gmail.com